The Native Himalayan Ethinic People

 The Native Himalayans and Ethnic Nationalities Reflections on the Eastern Himalayan and the Indo-Myanmar landscapes- Identifying and Interpreting

Natural and Cultural Heritage 

of the two ‘Global Biocultural Diversity Hotspots’

Volume – I

J. R. Subba (Pondhak)

Volume – I

Content

Preface…………………………………………………………………………………………     (iii) page

Timeline……………………………………………………………………………………         (xiii) page

Chapter 1. Limboo or Limbu Native Himalayan Reflections on the Eastern Himalayan Landscape  - Identifying and Interpreting Cultural Heritage ……………………………..     1 page

Chapter 2. Lepcha Native Himalayan Reflections on the Eastern Himalayan Landscape  - Identifying and Interpreting Cultural Heritage ……………………………     205 page

Chapter 3. Khambu-Rai Native Himalayan Reflections on the Eastern Himalayan Landscape  - Identifying and Interpreting Natural and Cultural Heritage …………………271 page

Chapter 4. Yakha Native Himalayan Reflections on the Eastern Himalayan Landscape  - Identifying and Interpreting Cultural Heritage ……………………………  311 page

Acknowledgements ……………………………………………………………………………    341 page

Index……………………………………………………………………………………………   342 page

Volume – II

Content

Chapter 5. Sunuwar Native Himalayan Reflections on the Eastern Himalayan Landscape  - Identifying and Interpreting Cultural Heritage …………………………………

Chapter 6. Newar Native Himalayan Reflections on the Eastern Himalayan Landscape - Identifying and Interpreting Cultural Heritage …………………………………

Chapter 7. Magar Native Himalayan Reflections on the Eastern Himalayan Landscape - Identifying and Interpreting Cultural Heritage…………………………………

Chapter 8. Gurung Native Himalayan Reflections on the Eastern Himalayan Landscape  - Identifying and Interpreting Cultural Heritage …………………………………

Chapter 9. Tamang Native Himalayan Reflections on the Eastern Himalayan Landscape  - Identifying and Interpreting Cultural Heritage……………………………….

Chapter 10. Thami Native Himalayan Reflections on the Eastern Himalayan Landscape  - Identifying and Interpreting Cultural Heritage …………………………………

Acknowledgements …………………………………………………………………………………..

Index……………………………………………………………………………………………………

Volume – III

Content

Chapter 11. Hayu or Wayu Native Himalayan Reflections on the Eastern Himalayan Landscape  - Identifying and Interpreting Natural and Cultural Heritage ………………….

Chapter 12. Chepang Native Himalayan Reflections on the Eastern Himalayan Landscape  - Identifying and Interpreting Cultural Heritage …………………………………

Chapter 13. Baramu Native Himalayan Reflections on the Eastern Himalayan Landscape - Identifying and Interpreting Cultural Heritage …………………………………

Chapter 14. Jirel Native Himalayan Reflections on the Eastern Himalayan Landscape - Identifying and Interpreting Cultural Heritage…………………………………

Chapter 15. Surel Native Himalayan Reflections on the Eastern Himalayan Landscape  - Identifying and Interpreting Cultural Heritage …………………………………

Chapter 16. Tharu Native Himalayan Reflections on the Eastern Himalayan Landscape  - Identifying and Interpreting Cultural Heritage……………………………….

Chapter 18. Darai Native Himalayan Reflections on the Eastern Himalayan Landscape  - Identifying and Interpreting Cultural Heritage …………………………………

Chapter 19. Majhi Native Himalayan Reflections on the Eastern Himalayan Landscape  - Identifying and Interpreting Cultural Heritage …………………………………

Chapter 20. Dhimal Native Himalayan Reflections on the Eastern Himalayan Landscape  - Identifying and Interpreting Cultural Heritage …………………………………

Chapter 21. Meche Native Himalayan Reflections on the Eastern Himalayan Landscape  - Identifying and Interpreting Cultural Heritage …………………………………

Chapter 22. Koch(inclusive of Rajbangshi, Rabha and Hajong Koch sub-groups) Native Himalayan Reflections  on the Eastern Himalayan Landscape- Identifying and Interpreting Cultural Heritage …….

Chapter 23. TotoNative Himalayan Reflections on the Eastern Himalayan Landscape  - Identifying and Interpreting Cultural Heritage …………………………………

Acknowledgements …………………………………………………………………………………..

Index……………………………………………………………………………………………………

Preface

 The reflections of the Native Himalayans on the Eastern Himalayan and Ethnic Nationalities on the Indo-Myanmar regions of the two ‘Global Bio-Cultural Diversity Hotspots’ – identifying and interpreting ‘Natural and Cultural Heritage’ highlights the cultural imprint of these two Bio-cultural regions of the world. It is in continuation to my previous work ‘History of the Kirata Empire’ spread in three volumes (Vol. I, II & III) to increase awareness of the historic places associated with the descendants of the Ancient Kiratas that has been identified, documented, recognized and interpreted to lay the ground work for identification of additional historic places of cultural heritage for a rich and holistic documentation of the above two ethnic groups of people under this study. 

 Bio-cultural diversity is an evolving perspective for studying the interrelatedness between people and their natural environment, not only in ecoregional hotspots and cultural landscapes, but also in urban green spaces. Developed in the 1990s in order to denote the diversity of life in all its manifestations―biological, cultural and linguistic―co-evolving within complex socio-ecological systemssuch as cities. Bio-cultural diversity was identified in the green surge project as a response to recent challenges cities face. Most important challenges are the loss of nature and degradation of ecosystems in and around cities as well as an alienation of urban residents from, and the loss of interaction with nature. The notion of bio-cultural diversity is dynamic in nature and takes local values and practices relating to bio-diversity of different cultural groups as a starting point for sustainable living. The issue is not only how to preserve or restore biocultural practices and values, but also how to modify, adapt and create biocultural diversity in ways that resonate with urban transformations. As future societies will largely diverge from today’s societies, the cultural perspective on living with (urban) nature needs careful reconsideration. Bio-cultural diversity is not conceived as a definite concept providing prescriptions of what to see and study, but as a reflexive and sensitizingconcept that can be used to assess the different values and knowledge of people that reflect how they live with biodiversity. 

More than 300 Native Himalayans and Ethnic Nationalities of these two biocultural regions are facing an acute problem of conserving their shamanic life-cycle rites due to absence of their incarnate shaman priests. The increased human settlement in the villages and urbanization are slowly distancing human being from nature day by day in these two biocultural diversity regions too. As a result, evolution of incarnate shamans in the societies are becoming rarer. Absence of “Institutionalization of their religion or belief system” is another vital reason. In many such societies, they are compelled to borrow shamans of their neighbouring communities for their life of passage rites. For instance, in the absence of Mun shaman priest in the Lepcha society of Sikkim, there is no one to perform Sangl Yon (deceased’s soul guiding rite); and thus, the Lepchas employ Buddhist Lama of Buddhism for performing this rite. The common Lepchas fail to understand how their “Non-dichotomy Spiritual Journey of Life” has been transformed into “Dichotomy Spiritual Journey of Life” by employing the Buddhist Lama for performing their Sangl Yon death rite. Similarly, many such ethno-groups have adapted the modern religions (Christianity, Buddhism, Hinduism, Islam etc. which is based on Greek’s Metaphysical doctrine) to solve such day to day problems of their life of passage rite, foregoing their ethnic life of passage rites.  

However, under this study only the interrelated-ness between different ethno-groups and their natural environment or the eco-regional hotspots and cultural landscapes which influenced each other for evolution of their specific ‘Natural and Cultural Heritage’ (mythic oral history and belief system, ethno-language, ethno-culture and ethno-customs) and vice versa has been discussed in brief.

The history and cultural heritage of the people of modern times could be documented easily in print, on film, on tapes and in computer records. Early history and cultural heritage of the ancient people of the two ethnic groups above are different: our distant past, like a richly coloured mosaic, must be pieced together by geneticists, anthropologists, archaeologists, linguists and Neolithic oral-mythic historians from surviving oral or written records and the products of years of painstaking excavation. Many of the fragments of the picture are missing. New facts constantly come to light. 

The history and cultural heritage of the Native Himalayans of the Eastern Himalayan region and the Ethnic Nationalities of the Indo-Myanmar region are further complicated and sandwiched by the more influential Indian civilization from the South and the Chinese civilization from the North. These two Global Bio-Cultural diversity hotspot regions were overshadowed by these two giant civilizations of Asia. And they became accessible only after the arrival of Indo-Aryans to these two regions in c. 1,400 BC and conquest of British India in the mid of 19th century. Most of the regions became a part of India or independent states of India (some North-Eastern states) and Independent Nation (Myanmar) only after the British rule which ended in the mid of 20th century.  Hence, much of the history and cultural heritage of the Native Himalayans and the Ethnic Nationalities remained unknown to the world even today.

In the ‘First Phase’ of this study, I have taken up the Native Himalayan Ethno-groups of Sikkim and West Bengal States of India and Nepal. I have discussed Native Himalayan Reflections on the Eastern Himalayan Landscape- Identifying and Interpreting Cultural Heritage of Limboos or Limbus, Lepchas, Yakhas, Khambu-Rai, Sunuwar,Newar, Magar, Gurung, Tamang and Thami (ten ethno-groups) in Volume I & II. 

And, the ethno-groups of Nepal (Hayu or Wayu, Chepang, Baramu, Jirel, Surel, Thakali, Tharu, Darai = 8 ethno-groups);Nepal and West Bengal (Dhimal, one ethno-group); West Bengal, Assam and Meghalaya States of India, and Nepal (Majhi, Meche and Koch = 3 ethno-groups); and West Bengal (Toto, one ethno-group), total of 13 ethno-groupsare included in Volume III.

Volume I: It includes - Limboos or Limbus, Lepchas and Yakhas (three ethno-groups);

Volume II: It includes - Khambu-Rai, Sunuwar,Newar, Magar, Gurung, Tamang and Thami (seven ethno-groups); and, 

Volume III: It includes – Hayu or Wayu, Chepang, Baramu, Jirel, Surel, Thakali, Tharu, Darai, Majhi, Dhimal, Meche, Koch and Toto (thirteen ethno-groups).

 Since the Native Himalayan ethno-groups of these three volumes (23 ethno-groups) described under this study mainly evolved and developed in Sikkim and West Bengal of India and Nepal during their Neolithic Revolution (c. 3,000 BC – AD 600) before the unification of Nepal (Gorkha or Nepal Nation), it is pertinent to know about their landscape and culture before and after the unification of Nepal during the latter-half of 18th century. The Kathmandu valley was known as Nepal before Nepal unification. Silvan Levy (1974:11) believes that the word ‘Nepal’ derives from Emperor Samudra Gupta’s (r 335/350 CE – 350 CE) Prayag inscription of India which may not be correct as it is a separate country far away from Kathmandu Valley; but Nepal, Gyanmani (1998: 15) opines that the word ‘Nepal’ was derived from the Nep people (or unnamed Kiratas later named as Gopala dynasty and Mahispala dynasty by Indo-Aryans) of Kathmandu Valley of Nepal. They were the first people to established pastoral kingdoms in Kathmandu valley in the Eastern Himalayan region in about the third millennium BCE. The Magars, Gurungs, Tamangs and Thakalis are supposed to be lineage to the Nep-people of the Kathmandu Valley. All other areas of present-day Nepal were known as Nepal only when the Gorkha State shifted its capital at Kathmandu from Gorkha State after unification of Nepal. 

A number of ethnic civilizations were evolved and developed in Nepal before unification of Nepal kingdom. In the western part, the landmass between Mahakali and Karnanali rivers of Nepal,‘Khas-civilization’ was established by a group of Non-Vedic Zagrosian (Caucasoid)goat herders from Zagros region of south-western Iran who migrated to the Indian Subcontinent in between c. 7,000 BC and c. 3,000 BC along with goats they domesticated in Iran and sheep they adopted from Mesopotamia after the defeat of Jadan Native Himalayan Kingdom (Tony, Joseph 2018; Tamang, Pursuram 1994/2018: 9-28). The area was popularly known as Khasan and people were Non-Vedic Khusor Khasas. Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent mainly took place from the 12th to the 16th centuries, though earlier Muslim conquests include the limited inroads into modern Afghanistan, Pakistan and the Umayyad campaigns in India, during the time of the Rajput kingdoms. The Rajput Kingdoms were established in India in the 8th century by the Vedic Indo-Aryans or Indo-Europeans who migrated from the Eurasian Steppe of Kazakhstan with Sanskrit, Vedic culture and horses-mastery to the Indian subcontinent after c. 2,000 BC (Ibid). The 13th and 14th century was the peak period of Muslim conquest. A large number of Vedic Indo-Aryan Caucasoids Brahmana priests, Rajputs and Chhetris from these Rajput Kingdoms from the western India migrated to the Himalayas to escape from the Muslim invasion and atrocities. These Vedic Indo-Aryans Hinduised these Khus people of Khasan for the first time. Under the leadership of Brahmins, Chhetris and Thakuris, the migrants conquered the Khasas of Khasan and established Baise States in around the 14th century. They also adapted Khus language of the Khasas which has become Nepali language of Nepal now. 

In the northern part of Nepal, a number of rivers and rivulets originate from the snows of the High Himalayas and flows southwards dissecting the hills and dales where a number of Native Himalayan cultures such as Newar, Magar, Gurung, Tamang, Thakali, Thami, Hayu or Wayu, Chepang, Baramu, Jirel, Surel, Thakali, etc. were evolved and developed.

On the south of Kali Gandaki, there was a republic of twelve (Bahara) Magars known as Magarat. This was the region where Magar ethno-group was evolved with Magar language, Magar Animist religion, Magar culture, Magar customs and developed Magar civilization. Once the Baise States were established in the 14th century, the Khus-Thakuris from the West, Sen-Thakuris from the south, Chhetris and Bahuns from all other sides migrated into Magarat state. Consequently, under the leadership of these migrant people Magarat state was conquered and Chaubise states were established. The influence of Vedic Caucasoid people was so effective in Magarat state that their vertical Magar society became horizontal in no time withdivision of Bahara-Panthi and Atharaha-Panthi Magar societies; thus,dividing Magar language into Kham, Magarati and Kaike languages. 

On the north of Kali Gandaki, there was a republic of Nine (Nau) Gurung Chiefs known as Tamumai Hyul. This was the region where Gurung(Tamu) ethno-group was evolved with Tamuor Tamumai language, Khema religion, Tamu culture, Tamu customs and Tamu civilization. The Ghaleys came from Manang area of modern Nepal and destabilized Tamumai Hyul(Gurung, Harka 1989:135). The Ghaleys were latter destabilized by Shah dynasty.The Gurung’s vertical society became horizontal as in the case of Magars with division of 4 (Char) Jat and 16 (Solaha) Jat Gurungs on the Hindu Indo-Aryan ruler’s Manusmriti line of social division.

On the east between the Burdi Gandaki and west of Dudhkosi, north of Mahabharat lies the Tamang Kipot known as Tamhyul or Sesanta or Tamsaling.  Its watersheds are Sunkosi, Dudhkosi, Burdi Gandaki and Trisuli rivers. This is the landscape where Tamang civilization was evolved and developed. The Tamang state was destabilized by the Newar Malla Kings first followed by Prithivi Narayan Shah. The Tamang’s vertical society became horizontal as in the case of Magars and Gurungs with division of 12 (Bahara) Jat and 18 (Atharaha) Jat Tamangs on the Hindu Indo-Aryan ruler’s Manusmriti line of social division.

The Kantipur, Bhaktapur and Lalitpur of Kathmandu Valley were the evolution and development landscapes of the Newars. The valley was the trading center of India and Tibet. The valley was an administrative center right from Licchavi civilization (c. 400 – 750 CE). During the Middle Age, the Mallas (Newars) migrated from Tirhut Kingdom or Mithila region of modern Bihar due to Muslim invasion who ruled the valley (c. 1201–1779 CE) (Tamang, Pursuram 1994/2018: 9-28). The valley was a trading center and thus developed into a city-state. The city-state was a converging area of Mithali, Kiranti, Licchavi and Sakya cultures. Thus, the mixture of these cultures produced a typical mixed culture of its own. The Newars had adapted Hinduism during 14th century. The Kathmandu valley was invaded and conquered by the Gorkhas in 1768-69 CE.

The landscape between the Dudhkosi and Arun rivers was the evolution and development center of Sunuwars, Jirels, Surels, Hayu or Wayu, Chepang, Baramu, Thami, and Khambu-Rai Kiratas; while the landscape between Arun and Teesta rivers was that of Limboo/Limbu Kiratas. The entire mountainous landscape between the Dudhkosi river and Teesta river is the evolution and development center of the Kiratas. The Kirata landscape was further divided into Wallo Kiratinhabited and ruled by their own Chiefs of the Sunuwar, Hayu or Wayu, Chepang, Baramu, Jirel, Surel, Thami, etc.; Majh Kirat was ruled by a number of Khambu-Rai Chiefs; and the Pallo Kirat was inhabited by Limbus, Lepchas and Yakhas but divided into ten provincesand ruled by their own Ten Chiefs as Republic Limbuwan Kingdom. Different Kirata languages, cultures, customs, traditions (Limboo or Limbu, Lepcha, Yakha, Khambu-Rai, Sunuwar, Jirels, Surels, Hayu or Wayu, Chepang, Baramu, Jirel, Surel, Thami, etc.) of Kirata civilization evolved and developed in these Kirata landscapes. The Gorkhas invaded and conquered Wallo Kirat and Majh Kirat by 1773 CE. While the Limbuwan Kingdom was merged into Gorkha Kingdom with autonomy in 1774 CE.

 In the Terai part of Nepal, a number of Bodo Kachari culture such as Tharu, Darai, Majhi, Dhimal, Meche, Koch etc.first evolved from the Ancient Bodo Kachari Kiratas around the landscape of ‘Di-laobra Sangibra’, the confluence of the Brahmaputra river and the Ganga river, the present West Bengal area, where the Bodo Kachari ethno-groups (Meche or Mech or Bodo, Sonowal Kachari, Dimasa, Tiwa or Lalung, Tipra, Tharu, Dhimal, Majhi, etc.) and migrated towards north-west direction to their present homeland, trailing the north-western bank of Ganga river and settled in the Terai areas of the Indian Sub-continent (Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh and India) to begin with, during their Neolithic Revolution (c. 3,000 BC – 600/700 AD) with Bodo Kachari Animist religion, oral and mythic history of origin and migration, Bodo Kachari language of Tibeto-Burman family of Sino-Tibetan, Bodo Kachari culture and Bodo Kachari customs. These Native Himalayan civilizations evolved and developed before unification of Nepal. The Terai area of Nepal were sparsely populated due to dreaded malaria disease but was also included in the Gorkha Kingdom.

 The Gorkha Kingdom expansion started by Prithivi Narayan Shah in 1745 continued by his successors up to 1814. The western border of the Gorkha Kingdom before 1814 extended from Kangrain the West to Teesta river in the East. The territorial expansion movement was stopped by the British Raj of India when they fought war in 1814. Then, the border of Nepal was fixed from Mahakali river in the West to Mechi river in the East.The size of the Nepal Kingdom was the same during Licchavi Period (r. 400 – 750 CE) also (Bajracharya, Dhanbaj BS 2019:21).Prithivi Narayan Shah did not do expansion but unification of Nepal Kingdom.The objective of the Gorkha conquest was (i) To establish a Hindu Kingdom as the Muslim invasion destabilized the Hindu Kingdoms in India; (ii) To explore financial stability for the poor Gorkha households of Gorkha state; and (iii) To imitate Kingdom expansionist movement of British Raj in India (Stiller, L.F.1976; Pradhan, Kumar 1991:157; Regmi 1971:9). 

Once the invasive Gorkhas established Gorkha Kingdom in Nepal (latter known as Nepal Kingdom) since 1770s, they started subjugating the Native Himalayans through Hinduization and Aryanization through inter-crossing legally or illegally; and imposing (i) one language (Khas Kura), one Dharma (Hinduism) and one culture (Hindu Culture) policy, banning practice of all other languages and traditions. This was followed by imposition of (ii) Muluki Aiyan of Teen Sarkar Rana Sasan since 1854 AD dividing the citizens of Nepal into five class categories namely, (a) Tagadharies or Abhijat – Upadhya Bahun, Rajput, Thakuri, Jaisi Bahun, Chhetri, Devaju, Madhise Bahun, Sanyasi, Jaisi (Indo-Aryans) and some Newars as privileged class; (b) Namasinya Matwali – Limbu, Khambu-Rai, Yakkha, Gurung, Magar, Sunuwar and some Newars (Kirata lineage) as second class citizens; (c) MasinyaMatwali– Chepang, Hayu, Tharu, Gharti, Kumal, and Majhi as third class citizens; (d) Choichito Halnu Naparne – Kasai, Newar-Kusuley, Newar-dhobi, and Colu as fourth class citizens; and (e) Choichito Halnu Parne – Kami, Damai, Sarki, Gaine, Porde, Chyame and Badi as fifth class citizens. All the ethno-groups falling under the above group (b) to (e) were subjugated by the people of (a) category people of Nepal for 125 years (1854 to 1979 AD). The people of Class (b) were entitled only for army and police services, while the citizens of class (c), (d), and (e) above of Nepal were not entitle to join any Government service in Nepal or even to join as Indian or British Army abroad. The subjugation continued during Panchayati-Raj since 1979 AD (for 28 years); and even after democracy since 2007 AD (8 years now) as the monarchical rule continued without any change in the constitution of Nepal until 2017. All the Native Himalayans (indigenous people) of Nepal were subjugated by Caucasoid Indo-Aryan Rulers of Nepal and the ruling Newars, dividing them into different category citizens not entitled to join army, police or any Government service in Nepal. And, as a result of which many people of categories (c), (d) and (e) fled from Nepal or changed their ethnicity to get employment in the country and abroad. They were exploited to the extreme end of extinction socially, religiously, culturally, linguistically and economically; and also coerced to write Hinduism as their religion (Gurung, Harka 2004). 

Through Hinduization, the Gorkhas envisaged to achieve a Hindu ruling country throughproselytization of the entire non-Hindu Native Himalayans to Hinduism and propagate Hindu culture and Khus language (later Nepali language) banning practice of all other languages, religious practices, culture and customs. The Khasas of Khasan state were conquered and converted to Hinduism during 14th century. Taking advantage of these Khasas of Khasan state, the Gorkhas migrated to Magarata of Magars and Tamumai stateof Gurungs from West and South; and thus, they conquered both the states in due course of time. Then, the Magars and Gurungs were Hinduized. As a result, some percentage of Magars and Gurungs were converted to Hinduism; and they were given some decision-making positions in the Gorkha administration.Thereafter, the Magars and Gurungs of Nepal were used as the main warrior force to conquer other states ruled by the Native Himalayans in the eastern Nepal. 

The Licchavis of Vaishali (modern Bihar state of India)who migrated to Kathmandu Valley during the last quarter of the second century (r. 400 – 750 CE) were Hindus; but their Hindu influence to the Native Himalayans was negligible. The Mallas migrated from Mithila region of modern Bihar due to Muslim invasion and ruled Kathmandu valley (r. 1201-1779 CE) who employed five Brahmans from India during 14th century and the Vertical society of Native Himalayans of the Kathmandu Valley (Newars) were divided into 4 (four – Bahun, Chhetri, Baishya and Sudra) Jat (caste) and 67 Barna (occupational caste) and thus Hinduized as horizontal caste-based Newar society. However, this Hinduized effect remained confined only within the valley (Newars) before the Gorkha invasion. Thus, Hinduism was not new before migration of Vedic Indo-Aryans in Nepal. Hinduism adaptation was the reason why some elite Newars were also included in the category (a) of rulers in the Muluki Aiyan of Teen Sarkar Rana Sasan since 1854 AD.

Nepal’s constitution of 1962 (BS 2019) and 1990 (BS 2047) has also declared the country as Hindu Kingdom. The Nepal’s constitution of 2017 has also declared itself as secular country but it has defined the meaning of secularism in favour of Hinduism. Although the Hindu caste-system was introduced in Nepal by Malla Kings, the spread of Hindu-caste-system was implemented by Shah dynasty and Rana Sashan throughout the country based on Hindu Manusmriti especially after P. M. Janga Bahadur Rana’s Muluki Ain of 1854 as stated above. Thus, the Kiratas are religiously divided into Sampritior Samriti (Hinduzised) and Riti or Niti (ethno-adherents). Followers of Sattehangma, Darap Yuma, etc. are the result of Samriti (Hinduised groups) protected by the Nepal administration. In the Animism of the Native Himalayans, gods, goddess and a common human beingnever reincarnates in life. Reincarnation in the Animism of Native Himalayans is confirmedonly in ‘Shamanism’. While in Hinduism,incarnation and reincarnation is a phenomenon in samsara (sinner’s human soul reincarnates on any plants and animalsin samsara). Gods and goddess incarnate on human beings in Hinduism in Samsarabut not in Animism of the Native Himalayans. 

Since, most of the Native Himalayans of Sikkim (Limboos or Limbus, Lepchas, Yakhas, Khambu-Rai, Sunuwar,Newar, Magar, Gurung, Tamang and Thami = 10 Nos.) and West Bengal (Limbus, Lepchas, Yakhas, Khambu-Rai, Sunuwar,Newar, Magar, Gurung, Tamang, Thami, Majhi, Meche, Dhimal and Koch = 14 Nos.) state of India are same as that of Nepal; andthus, they were religiously, linguistically, culturally affected directly or indirectly (except administrative policies) by the Nepal Kingdom’s policies implemented. The Hayu or Wayu, Chepang, Baramu, Jirel, Surel and Thakali are inhabitants of Nepal only.The Totoethno-group exclusively inhabits West Bengal.

 I hope this work of extensive survey and intensive collection of Bio-cultural information for documentation in English language of more than 300 ethnic groups speaking more than 435 Tibeto-Burman languages of the Native Himalayans and Ethnic Nationalities, extending more than two decades of these two regions may throw some light on the Natural and cultural heritage of the people of these two Bio-cultural diversity regions of the world. 

 Jash Raj Subba (Pondhak)

References:

Bajracharya, Dhanbaj (BS 2019:21). Itihas Sangsodhanka Pranam-rameya. Kathmandu.

Gurung, Harka (1989:135). Newar and culture. Kathmandu, Saroj Gurung.

Levy, Silvan (1974:11). Nepal, Kailash 3(1), Kathmandu: Ratna Pustak Bhandar.

Nepal Gyanmani (1998:15). Nepal Nirupam. Prachin Nepalko ek Ghalak. Nepal Rajkiya Pragya Pratisthan.

Pradhan, Kumar (1991:157). The Gorkha conquest. Calcutta, Oxford University Press. 

Regmi, M.C. (1971:9). A study in Nepal Economic history of Nepal. New Delhi. Manjushri Publishing House.

Stiller, L.F. (1976). The silent cries: the people of Nepal, 1816-1839, Kathmandu, Sahayogi Prakashan. 

Tamang, Parsuram (1994/2018: 9-28). Tamang Jati. Nepal Academy, Kathmandu, Nepal.

Tony, Joseph (2018). How ancient DNA may rewrite prehistory in India? Based on ancient DNA research of David  Reich and 92 other genderists of Harvard University, USA.

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